. The Canadian field-naturalist. 2000 PosziG AND Theberge: Wolf Responses to Shifts of Deer 69 ^TT Algonquin Park. LxxJ 1 ! I I I km 1 0 5km Resident Wolf Packs: S Acorn D Byers Creek* Migratory Wolf Packs: » Basin* o Hardwood Solitary Migratory Wolves: + Jack Pine -!? Traverse Wolves Outside Study Area: A Gariepy Deer Density: _ J Nil I Not investigated ^ DeerKill Road Figure 4. Locations of radio-collared wolves and deer kills in relation to deer distribution in the study area for period 4 (16 March-8 April 1997). Low deer density sets of tracks/100 m. A * identifies packs with two radio
. The Canadian field-naturalist. 2000 PosziG AND Theberge: Wolf Responses to Shifts of Deer 69 ^TT Algonquin Park. LxxJ 1 ! I I I km 1 0 5km Resident Wolf Packs: S Acorn D Byers Creek* Migratory Wolf Packs: » Basin* o Hardwood Solitary Migratory Wolves: + Jack Pine -!? Traverse Wolves Outside Study Area: A Gariepy Deer Density: _ J Nil I Not investigated ^ DeerKill Road Figure 4. Locations of radio-collared wolves and deer kills in relation to deer distribution in the study area for period 4 (16 March-8 April 1997). Low deer density sets of tracks/100 m. A * identifies packs with two radio-collared wolves. No rivers and only selected roads are shown. tion of Coyotes in winter deer concentration areas. The high wolf density in the Round Lake deer yard (Forbes and Theberge 1995) and the reported little intraspecific aggression between wolves occupying the yard during the winter (Cook 1996; Theberge 1998) indicate that Algonquin wolves exhibit high tolerance levels. It has been argued that yarding of deer might have evolved as an anti-predator strategy (Nelson and Mech 1981; Messier and Barrette 1985; Nelson and Mech 1991). Nelson and Mech (1981, 1986) observed that White-tailed Deer are much more vul- nerable to wolf predation in winter because of imped- iment by snow and reduced energy reserves. To min- imise vulnerability, deer may concentrate in relative- ly small areas. Nelson and Mech (1981) suggested six benefits of deer concentration. Under winter condi- tions, safety in numbers exists because grouping (1) facilitates the formation of a well-worn trail network that can be used for escape routes, (2) increases deer ability to detect predators, (3) improves ability to confuse predators, (4) results in lower ratios of preda- tor to prey (dilution factor), (5) increases time for for- aging and ruminating because of decreased vigilance time, and (6) increases exposure of more vulnerable older deer and hence improves survival chances for younger deer of the popu
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