. Cloud Forest Agenda. UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series 20. Cloud forest agenda Ecuador and Venezuela, and in Indonesia and Malaysia. Bruijnzeel and Hamilton (2000] also report cloud forests affected by gem mining in Sri Lanka, geothermal development in the Philippines and Java, and gold mining in New Guinea. Deforestation for drug cultivation Clearance of cloud forests for the illegal production of opium in Colombia is documented by Cavelier and Etter (1995). This threat continues to increase (Etter and van Wyngaarden, 1999]. Cloud forest clearance tor cultivation of coca leaf is also a signific
. Cloud Forest Agenda. UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series 20. Cloud forest agenda Ecuador and Venezuela, and in Indonesia and Malaysia. Bruijnzeel and Hamilton (2000] also report cloud forests affected by gem mining in Sri Lanka, geothermal development in the Philippines and Java, and gold mining in New Guinea. Deforestation for drug cultivation Clearance of cloud forests for the illegal production of opium in Colombia is documented by Cavelier and Etter (1995). This threat continues to increase (Etter and van Wyngaarden, 1999]. Cloud forest clearance tor cultivation of coca leaf is also a significant threat in Bolivia, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela, where it is associated with high rates of land degradation and rural poverty (Salis, 1999]. Alien species The introduction of alien species was reported in the WCMC directory as a threat to cloud forests only for Malawi and Reunion. In these locations alien species have a major impact. Cloud forests in Jamaica are being invaded by the Australian tree Pittosporum undulatum (Goodland and Healey, 2001), which is able to grow at higher densities than any native species and, because it has a dense crown, achieves a much greater dominance than the native trees. In Hawaii feral pigs in the cloud forests have contributed to plant and bird extinctions (Bruijnzeel and Hamilton, 2000]. HABITAT FRAGMENTATION AND DISTURBANCE A feature of many cloud forest sites is their occurrence as 'islands' of evergreen forest on mountain tops or along ridges. Cloud forests are often bounded both above and below by drier vegetation types. Alternatively they may intergrade with other humid tropical forests at lower elevations. This is illustrated by Maps 5 and 6. Map 5 shows how most of the Albertine Rift montane forests form the eastern limit of the Congo Basin rainforest, whilst the cloud forests of Kenya and Tanzania are 'islands' of humid forests in drier lowlands. Map 6 shows how the cloud forests of the northern Andes form broken chains' of this h
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