. Deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystems - a scoping report on their socio-economy, management and governance. UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series 28. Human activities and impacts on the deep sea high oil prices (Pauly ef 2003]. Captains of large trawlers have already refused to go to sea knowing the ex-vessel value of the catch would not cover fuel costs, despite subsidies IClavreul, 2006]. Pauly ef at. 12003) suggest that areas of the high seas could become "quasi-marine reserves" as deep-sea fisheries become cost-prohibitive for large trawlers. Restrictions on trawling gear, such as
. Deep-sea biodiversity and ecosystems - a scoping report on their socio-economy, management and governance. UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series 28. Human activities and impacts on the deep sea high oil prices (Pauly ef 2003]. Captains of large trawlers have already refused to go to sea knowing the ex-vessel value of the catch would not cover fuel costs, despite subsidies IClavreul, 2006]. Pauly ef at. 12003) suggest that areas of the high seas could become "quasi-marine reserves" as deep-sea fisheries become cost-prohibitive for large trawlers. Restrictions on trawling gear, such as the diameters of bobbins and rollers or the use of chains for levelling the seabed, could also prevent fishing in some vulnerable and coarse areas IUN, 2006a]. The long-term effects of bottom trawling are increasingly visible and habitat destruction will potentially lead to the collapse of more fisheries. Assessing the impact of these fisheries on biodiversity and ecosystems at all trophic levels is an urgent task for the scientific community. Further economic studies of the deep-sea fishing sector - including assessment of externalities and of market distortions due to subsidies - are needed to support sus- tainable use and management of the deep-sea resources. Such studies must be linked to the issue of sustainable use of shallow-water fisheries, which have a greater potential for resilience than deep-sea ones. Offshore oil and gas operations Context Most submarine oil and gas reserves occur on the continental shelfs and slopes (sometimes at considerable depth], where continental crust is present. These oil and gas resources were formed by the degradation of organic matter that accumulated over millennia in sedimentary basins on the bottom of the ocean. Buried by sediments in an anaerobic environment, the organic matter was subjected to gradual decay through bacterial and chemical action while sediments continued to accumulate above. The resulting conditions of pressure and t
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