. Elementary physical geography . NOES. Dana. — Characteristics ofVolcanoes. Dodd, Mead &Co., New York, 1891. 8vo.$ (A very complete andvaluable discussion of the sub-ject.) Hull. — Volcanoes: Past andPresent. Scribner, New York(Contemporary Science Se-ries), 1892. 12mo. $ Judd.—Volcanoes. Appleton& Co., New York (Inter-national Scientific Series),1881. 12mo. $ For Eruption of Krakatoa, see The Eruption of Krakatoa (edited bySymons). Trubner & Co., London, 1888. 4to. 30s. Eor Hawaiian Volcanoes, see Button, Fourth. Annual Report, U. Survey, Washington, 1884. earthq
. Elementary physical geography . NOES. Dana. — Characteristics ofVolcanoes. Dodd, Mead &Co., New York, 1891. 8vo.$ (A very complete andvaluable discussion of the sub-ject.) Hull. — Volcanoes: Past andPresent. Scribner, New York(Contemporary Science Se-ries), 1892. 12mo. $ Judd.—Volcanoes. Appleton& Co., New York (Inter-national Scientific Series),1881. 12mo. $ For Eruption of Krakatoa, see The Eruption of Krakatoa (edited bySymons). Trubner & Co., London, 1888. 4to. 30s. Eor Hawaiian Volcanoes, see Button, Fourth. Annual Report, U. Survey, Washington, 1884. earthquakes. Milne. — Earthquakes. Appleton, New York, 1891 (International Scien-tific Series). 12mo. $ a description of the Charleston Earthquake of 1886, see Dutton, Ninth Annual Report, U. S. Geological Survey, Washington, 1889. * 1 Nearly all of these articles in the U. S. Geological Survey Reports are well illustrated ; andsince many of them are readily obtained free of cost, they should be widely Fig. Faithful Geyser, Yellowstone Park. CHAPTER XXL THE TOPOGRAPHY OF THE LAND. General Statement.—Land forms are of two kinds: (1) thosethat have been built by some agency and (2) those thathave resulted from the combined action of building andcarving. By far the greater number of land forms are ofthe last origin, and there are few that have resulted exclu-sively from constructive action. There are two sets offorces working upon the earth in an effort to modify itssurface : the one internal, which tends to make the surfacediverse, the other mainly external and tending to level. Asa result of the action of the former, the earths surface isthrown into a series of waves, great and small, and some ofthese are even now in process of formation. If nothing had interfered, these earth waves would havemade the surface very irregular, and the mountain chainswould have risen to vastly greater heights, and often withmuch steeper slopes than we really find. In oppo
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